These lectures are merely a paltry outline of the tremendously complex fabric of medieval Russia. No more so is this the case than in the development of Moscow, the perennial question of students of pre-Bolshevik Russia, a topic on which one can base an entire career. In this group of lectures, I shall try and provide at least a bare outline of the major personalities and forces that contributed to this momentous set of events that defined Russia for all time.

Moscow was soon to become the center of eastern Russia, later to be called “Great Russia.” Moscow, rather, the Muscovite region, was a relatively homogenous area, Russian-speaking and Orthodox, while the Lithuanian empire was multi-ethnic, multi-religious and far more aristocratic in its constitution. Division was the norm in Poland-Lithuania, while unity was to be the central idea of the Muscovite idea, an idea deriving from the true founder of the Tsardom, St. Andrew of Vladimir.

The son of St. Alexander, whose victories against the Swedes provided an extraordinary among of legitimacy to the Suzdalite line of the Rurikids, was Daniel (d. 1303). Daniel sets the stage for the nature of Muscovite expansion: unity at the expense of the appanage system, the Kievan system. Moscow’s strategy, largely an ex post facto idea, is that of, firstly, the use of ruthless methods in the creation of unity; secondly, cooperation with the Mongols until the proper time for liberation arrives; and thirdly, the creation of a new ideological order to confront Lithuania. Daniel was canonized by the Russian church for his personal piety (especially his spending his own personal money in the construction of monasteries), as well as his desire for a unified Russian state, something central, even in his own lifetime, necessary for the continual survival of Orthodoxy among the Slavs. Outside of either Lithuania or the Horde itself, Russia by the death of Daniel was made up of Moscow, Riazan, Tver, Suzdal and Novgorod.

From 1303 to 1325, the ruler of Moscow was George, son of St. Daniel. Tver, an important, but small trading city, became the main rival for power among the Slavs of the east. Michael had based himself in Novgorod, providing himself with a large income to keep the land-based Moscow at bay. Significantly, Michael was also canonized due to his personal piety and support of the church, even though he opposed Muscovite supremacy, proving that canonization in medieval Russia was not based entirely on political motives, as some vulgar scholars have maintained.

St. Michael began to style himself the Lord of All Rus’, as, at one time or another, he controlled Tver, Vladimir and Novgorod, which, at the time, made him far more powerful than George. Michael had the added advantage of having the permission of the Khan to rule, though George was soon to change that. Fortunately for George, he began to develop a friendship with the head of the Horde, Khan Uzbek, and George began to claim that his recently deceased wife was murdered by agents of Michael. While Uzbek refused to judge the case, George was eventually able to bribe Uzbek to murder Michael, hence making the latter a martyr. As a result, Tver, where St. Michael was very popular, rose against Mongol rule–a disastrous mistake.

George’s brother was the famous Ivan I Kalita, ruling from 1328 to 1341. Kalita means “moneybags,” and was a name given to him by the poor of Moscow, to whom Ivan would roam the streets, throwing out small bags of money. Some have claimed that “moneybags” in a name given also for his adept handling of money. By the reign of Ivan I, Moscow had already become a force to reckon with. Partially, this is because Ivan offered to lead the Mongol force sent against Tver in response to their uprising against Horde rule. Now, Uzbek gave Ivan an army of 50,000 horsemen to smash Tver, though they were quickly paid off by the rich merchants of Novgorod. 50,000 men, now with little to do, went on a rampage in central Russia.

In the meantime, several things occurred. Firstly, Michael of Tver was murdered, to be replaced by Alexander of Tver. Secondly, Alexander himself had fled to Novgorod, who, in fear, sent him to Pskov, a smaller verison of the famous Patrimony. To a small extent, both Michael and Alexander sought to promote themselves as opponents of Mongol rule, as both George and Ivan I were actively cooperating with it. Further, Novgorod and Pskov, two cities normally allied against Moscow, had substantial trading interests that could easily be vitiated by the Horde’s dominance of the Black Sea and Moscow’s coming dominance of the Volga.

Several times the Horde had summoned Alexander, only to be refused by the newly minted crusader against the Mongols. Ivan took advantage of this foolhardiness to approach Uzbek again and ask for another army, which was given him. In the meantime, Alexander had fled from Pskov to Lithuania in hopes to lead a large army against Uzbek and Ivan, and thus place all Russia under Lithuania and the Church of Rome. Lithuania, having no desire for a war with the Horde, threw Alexander out. Uzbek, for his part, saw no further need for hostility, sought to forgive the popular Alexander and reinstall him in Tver for promises of loyalty. This loyalty is soon to be overridden by the anger of the Tverian population, who demands that Alexander raise an army against the Asiatics. Alexander himself becomes the rallying cry with all who actively demand military force to smash the Horde once and for all. Seeing another opportunity, Ivan again goes to Sarai providing the khan with all the information he needs on Alexander and the status of Tver. Ivan launched an assault on Tver, delivering Alexander to the khan, where he was beheaded and quartered.

In response, Novgorod quickly announces she is allied with Lithuania, and even offers to convert to Catholicism so long as their merchant interests are respected by the ruler of Lithuania, which at the time is Gedimyn. Seeing this, Ivan I responds by bringing the pro-Moscow metropolitan Theognostos to Moscow from Vladimir, completing the transference of the metropolitan of Kiev to Moscow, significantly while retaining his title to Kiev. St. Theognostos had proven his Christian mettle by giving away all his earthly possessions to hopefully buy off Mongol power. He was dedicated to the uniting of all Russian lands, and firmly believed that Ivan I was in the best position to accomplish this. As a result of this belief he had excommunicated the pious Alexander of Tver in his quest to receive the Mongol patent to rule a united Russia from Tver, while the latter was at Pskov. St. Theognostos’s life of struggle provided him with tremendous prestige, all of which he spent on supporting the agenda of Ivan and the Muscovite cause. All those Orthodox people who oppose “Muscovite centralism” have no less a personage than Theognostos to contend with. Further, the great metropolitan was Greek, not Slavic, by birth.

Now, one of the most significant and important means whereby Ivan and the Moscow rulers after him consolidate Russian territory is to become the primary tax gatherers of the Khan. Needless to say, the taxes gathered by Ivan and his successors go to Sarai, with a substantial cut going to moneybags himself. Ultimately, it is this that proves the undoing of Mongol power.

From 1341 to 1353 Ivan’s Moscow, now both a military and financial power, was ruled by Simeon, Ivan’s oldest son. One might say that Ivan’s money won the day at Sarai, and upon the ascension of Simeon, Tver again rose in foolhardy revolt against the Horde, one that was quickly smashed. As Lithuania was placing more and more pressure on the Horde, Simeon was given proportionally more power over finance and internal administration, beginning about a slow but steady consolidation of Moscow’s control. Simeon was given the sole patent to collect the Khan’s taxes, and Simeon, in his campaign against Smolensk, proved himself as a military leader. And while there can be little doubt that Simeon was a threat to the Horde at least in potentia, there was little Sarai could do about it, given their precarious position. Moscow was now wealthy, militarily strong and competently led. It is difficult to think that Sarai thought any different of him, though Lithuania was considered far more dangerous than Moscow (thus buying Moscow more time). Furthermore, Simeon was able to receive a Mongol grant to rule Novgorod, for a large fee that Simeon was in a unique position to afford. Simeon even challenged Novgorod’s trading privileges with the south by opening up substantial Dnieper-based trading with Byzantium (and hence Venice and Genoa). Unfortunately, his trading privileges cost him his life, in that the Black Death was imported into Russia through the Italian trading connections. Simeon, who became a monk in his last days, died of the plague, along with his two sons.

Moscow’s tremendous blessings were to temporarily run out with the ascension of Ivan II, second son of Ivan I Kalita. From 1341 to 1359, Ivan II quickly squandered the capital (political, religious and economic), that was built by his two predecessors. Ivan II was weak, but remains an exception, as Moscow was blessed by a long string of particularly strong rulers both before and after him. Moscow was invaded by Lithuania, seeing the weakness of Ivan. Novgorod merely ignored his rule and anarchy reigned over the growing Muscovite principality. Impatient, the Mongols gave their patent to Suzdal, and, in the next few years, it will be the allied city of Vladimir, under the Great Dimitri, who will pick up where Moscow left off. Dimitry Donskoy ruled during a civil war within the Mongol Horde. At the age of 12, this rather precocious boy declared himself grand prince of all Rus, having ruled Moscow since age 9. Shocking all with his youthful audacity, the boy waged war against Suzdal and Tver, subduing both. The Mongols, now reorganized under Khan Mourovt (sometimes called Mamai), recognized this amazing personality, while Dimitri took advantage of the weakness of the Horde by dividing and conquering its various factions. Even more amazing, Dimitri more than doubled the size of Moscow by taking advantage of the long developing war between Lithuania and the Horde. Once the smoke had cleared, there was no doubt who dominated eastern and southern Rus, and now, who the great threat to the Mongols truly was. The Khans had created a monster, and this monster had now turned on them, though Dimitri had long promised his loyalty to Sarai.

But Dimitri’s 30 year reign was just beginning. Several other events took place that guaranteed a Russian victory and the dominance of Moscow. Firstly, the arrival of Tamerlane, discussed already in a Lithuanian context. The good that this Mongol ruler did for Christian Europe is incalculable, though Tamerlane was not aware of his providential role. It should be noted that Tamerlane respected and possibly feared Dimitri, though Russia had come too far for the young man to respond to a summons. While Tamerlane played havoc with Russia, the true victor of Tamerlane’s crusade to rebuild Genghis’ empire was Dimitri, Orthodoxy and Moscow. Which by now were considered one and the same thing.

In 1380, Dimitri’s place in world history was sealed. Lithuania, fearing a strong Moscow more than a strong Sarai, quickly switched sides and allied with the newly reorganized Horde. At the same time, the Mongols, quickly understanding the threat that Dimitri posed to them, mobilized the newly re-conquered region of Riazan, creating a formidable army to use against Moscow. While some of Mamai’s allies were detained prior to the fighting, it is clear that Dimitri was outnumbered, by some estimates 80,000 Muscovites and allies and well over 100,000 Mongols and allies.

Now, it needs to be made clear that the chaos of the Horde largely rendered the phrase “Golden Horde” meaningless, and Mamai sought the creation of a new Horde called the “Blue Horde” closer to the Crimea. Whether this was a means to provide some reassurance to his Genoean allies is a matter for speculation, but relations with the Italians were absolutely central for the continuance of Mongol rule. But from the reign of Simeon onward, the Mongols had competition in this region as well.

These divisions in the Horde proved the downfall of Mongol rule, for it was the superior planning of Dimitri in taking advantage of these divisions that led to Mamai’s defeat and eventual assassination in the Crimea. Some of Dimitri’s western allies among the Orthodox engaged in surprise tactics which destroyed the plans of Mamai. Dimitri was the first to use canon in the east, as well as the first to coin a regular currency and regulate it from one place. Moscow was now an empire, and European history will never be the same.

Did the early Tsars/princes have an organized plan against Sarai?

I really don’t think so. The Horde, having underwent some major changes, was used as the papacy was, as the Lithuanian empire was. They were chess pieces in a complex military game. Moscow was blessed in that her long line of strong, pious and competent rulers permitted the taxing status of Moscow to morph into an empire in its own right, one rather hidden by the strength of Lithuania. The Mongols had no choice but to tolerate this rise and deal with it at a later date. It spelled disaster for the Horde.

What of principle? We’ve heard of money and military power, what of ideas?

Novgorod had no principles. This was her downfall. She cared little for religion, as witnessed by her offer to convert to the Roman church in exchange for protection. Money was her god. Moscow seemed to be a different story. Over and over again, we hear of pious princes giving of their own substance to endow monasteries, of seeking advice from holy monastics, and giving lavishly to the poor. Principle did matter, but in this demoniacal age of ours, it seems almost bizarre to believe that people actually acted that way. As Byzantium shows extreme signs of weakness after 1204, and other powers quickly moving in to fill the gap, there was a strong sense that Moscow was an autonomous Byzantine province, one in charge of its religious destiny in all but name. This empire was explicitly to be an Orthodox empire, a secure military outpost for the true faith. No one on the throne in Moscow differed from this elemental idea, and by the time the “Third Rome” notion was explicitly formulated under Ivan III, it had long since been a venerable tradition, in one form or another.